Introduction
Chinese culture is among the oldest and most influential on the development of humanity. In the context of this essay, the ancient era of this civilization covers the period between ca. 1760 B.C.E. and 220 C.E., which marks the Han dynasty’s fall (Magli, 2020). Some researchers emphasize that premodern China was characterized by the lack of a culture of innovation. For instance, according to Leung (2020), technology transformation was hindered due to historical, cultural, and economic factors. However, Fu et al. (2021) note that “Western perspectives credit ancient China with technology but not science, fomenting prejudice very likely to lead us to miss what is innovative in traditional Chinese science” (p. 391). Therefore, it is essential to explore this subject and identify factors affecting the scientific thinking and technical processes of Ancient China.
Ancient Chinese civilization was characterized by scientific activity in various fields, and knowledge was of particular importance in this culture. In this regard, the ancient Chinese progressed significantly in astronomy and were able to predict lunar and solar eclipses, as well as the appearance of comets (Magli, 2020). Chinese astronomers performed exact time measurements and mapped out rare cosmic events. A growing understanding of such high-level science has led to speculations on causes that impeded the development of modern science in China.
Some academics argue that premodern China lacked a heritage of invention and a culture of innovation because Chinese intellectuals disregarded practical studies for so long. These frequently include basic fallacies of historical reasoning that make this topic worth exploring. When extended to its logical conclusion, this misconception leads to the assumption that an entire set of major changes could not have occurred in another society because a key component of the European Scientific Revolution is absent from that culture. This reasoning is incorrect because ancient China incorporated the new ideals latent in foreign science to modify existing traditional and cultural values instead of replacing them and thus did not generate an equivalent degree of excitement in science as it was in Europe.
Discussion
A Brief History of Chinese Astronomy
To begin with, it is essential to consider the historical perspective on the development of Chinese astronomy, as well as the traditional understandings, concepts, and techniques used by ancient scholars. According to Carter (2021), “the oldest star maps and the earliest records of sunspots have been unearthed by archaeologists in China, where a unique way of looking at the night sky developed about 1,200 BC” (para. 1).
Ancient Chinese astronomy differs significantly from Babylonian and Western approaches to this subject. The Chinese saw the universe as an orange hanging from the pole star, with the celestial equator divided into 28 houses and a number of constellations 284 (Carter, 2021). Astronomers of the Chinese imperial court observed extraordinary celestial phenomena and produced chronicles that constitute a valuable source for researchers, as they enable exploring the appearance of new stars and comets.
Furthermore, Chinese astronomers were aware of the movement of stars, and they discovered this fact without the use of a telescope and earlier than their European counterparts. In ancient records, there are also references to observations of meteors, comets, and the appearance of new stars and supernovas. Around 780 B.C.E., Chinese scholars developed the theory of lunar and solar eclipses (Carter, 2021, para. 5). The first specialized observatory was set in China, equipped with innovative instruments: compasses, sun and water clocks, and other mechanisms and devices. In this regard, Western technological superiority can be questioned due to the lack of such inventions.
Overall, cosmogonic theories in Ancient China revolved around the idea that the universe consisted of two substances: yang and yin, associated with motion and rest, respectively. According to the Neo-Confucian school, represented mainly by Chu Xi in the twelfth century, yang and yin mingled before the formation of the world, but they were separated by the rotation of the universe (Fu et al., 2021). The mobile yang was thrown to the periphery and formed the sky, while the inert yin remained in the center and created the Earth. Intermediate elements, such as living things and planets, held different proportions of yang and yin.
Another essential concept, the Chinese calendar, was considered a symbol of the dynasty. As dynasties rose and fell, astronomers and astrologers of each period prepared a new calendar based on specific observations (Magli, 2020). Astrological divination was another crucial aspect of astronomy, and scholars observed guest stars, usually supernovae or comets, that appeared among fixed stars. The supernova that created the Crab Nebula, currently is one of the astronomical events observed by ancient Chinese astronomers (Fu et al., 2021). As can be seen, innovative inventions were an integral part of the technological process in Ancient China’s astrology.
Innovation and Inventions in Astronomy in Premodern China
One of the main arguments used to support the notion that China did not have a tradition of the invention is that the country experienced no scientific revolution as in Europe. However, by using traditional measures of intellectual achievement, one might say that China experienced its scientific process in the 1700s. Starting from the 1600s, Chinese students were exposed to foreign mathematics and astronomy in a format that would soon become outdated in regions of Europe where students were allowed access to current information (Ning et al., 2017). Several Chinese intellectuals immediately reacted, and new initiatives to reform Chinese astronomy were started.
Primarily, Chinese scholars did not see how this new science could replace ancient knowledge that was the core of societal institutions and beliefs. Instead, they fundamentally and irreversibly reshaped how people see and interpret celestial movements. Thus, conventional numerical or algebraic techniques were substantially superseded by trigonometry and geometry (Deng, 2021). In other words, they altered the perception of which ideas, tools, and approaches are fundamentally significant.
There was a sudden increase in interest in topics such as a planet’s absolute rotational sense and relative proximity to Earth. For the first time, Chinese astronomers realized that mathematical models could forecast and explain events (Keyser & Scarborough, 2018). These transformations represent a theoretical revolution in astronomy, while in Europe, they were embraced from a practical and scientific viewpoint.
Perhaps the most far-reaching effect of China’s contact with European science was the resurrection of long-lost techniques in ancient Chinese astronomy. Consequently, old astronomy methods were re-examined alongside new concepts, which lent credence to what may be considered a new classicism (Goldin, 2018). The new values inherent in the imported astronomical literature were not employed to replace traditional values; rather, they were applied to remodel ancient values. This raises the question of why this theoretical revolution lacked the social implications that scholars of Western science want many to anticipate. When the Chinese realized that the European methods generated more accurate estimates, there was no longer any antagonism between the old and new schools of astronomy.
Contrary to popular assumption, the success of European computational methods was not the result of a convergence of brilliant minds. Instead, it resulted from the royal government’s decision to give Jesuit missionaries authority over the day-to-day operations of the Astronomical Bureau (Lim, 2020). This was not the case in China because, despite their strength, Western approaches provided Chinese students with no other path to success and notoriety, and the civil service examination system further limited them (Goldin, 2018). There were just a handful of astronomers among the ancient intellectual aristocracy that could counter the Jesuits’ publications. They were required to assess advances in the context of firmly established principles they thought were their duty to uphold and transmit to the upcoming generation.
Undoubtedly, revolutions in politics and science occur outside the confines of civilization. However, the individuals who started it in old China were deeply committed to their society’s key pillars (Schirokauer, 2019). No astronomy scholars at the time were driven to reject established ideals. Similarly, no organizations of disillusioned thinkers sufficiently pursued concepts wherever they went, even if the surrounding society crumbled.
Men from the lower Yangtze valley were among the first and most important proponents of Western astronomy (Schirokauer, 2019). They acted as loyalists, refusing to support a new regime, especially what they perceived as a non-Chinese ruler. They were inspired to devote their lives to learning and disseminating new math concepts and astronomy. Simultaneously, they used them to perfect the forgotten practices of their heritage after declining to pursue normal occupations in a culture that, in their opinion, had disintegrated (Guan, 2021). Thus, premodern China had a scientific tradition whose goals were tied to its culture and ideals.
In this regard, scientific thinking and innovation were rooted in China’s political and cultural contexts. Astronomy was a political instrument aimed at the needs of astrology, which was necessary to confirm the legitimacy of the authorities (Magli, 2020). The astrological meaning of heavenly manifestations affected social and political life. Only state officials had the Right to practice astrology; not only was this activity not encouraged, but it could cause accusations of seeking to overthrow the government (Magli, 2020). Nevertheless, this discipline was pivotal in the system of natural sciences of ancient China and made a significant contribution to the development of Chinese and world civilization.
The foundations for Chinese mathematical astronomy included observations of the position of the stars, as well as the seven large celestial bodies of the solar system. Under the influence of the principles of neo-Confucianism, the development of Chinese traditional science progressed, and three essential inventions were made: gunpowder, printing, and the compass, which were important for the whole world (Lim, 2020). Moreover, other innovations were the calculation, forecasting, and observation of solar and lunar eclipses and the establishment and various improvements in the technical plan of the time measurement system and the calendar system.
Conclusion
Some modern scholars believe that Premodern China lacked a culture of innovation. These flawed arguments arise from the limited understanding of how Chinese scholars perceive new science. Mainly, scientific thinking and technical processes in ancient China were heavily influenced by traditional values and values. Thus, foreign ideas were not seen as replacements for old concepts but as proven methods that could be used to improve existing ones. This explains why the scientific revolution in China, marked by the emergence of new ways of learning and understanding astronomy, did not have the same impact witnessed in the West.
Astronomy in ancient China was one of the priority areas. The peculiarity of the discoveries made by Chinese scientists is that almost all of them were made exclusively on their own, without relying on the already existing achievements of other civilizations. Nevertheless, in their scientific research, they managed to achieve significant success. It was in China that the oldest maps of the starry sky and the earliest records of sunspots were discovered, the theory of lunar and solar eclipses was developed, and the first specialized observatory was created, where discoveries such as the compass and sun and water clocks were used, and improved systems for measuring time and the calendar system.
Moreover, a characteristic feature of Chinese astronomy was its reliance on traditional political and cultural values. Since ancient times, Chinese astronomy has been a political tool to meet the needs of astrology in order to validate the legitimacy of power.
Unlike all other states of antiquity, the astronomers of China were not bound by the performance of religious functions. They were high-ranking government officials whose duties included conducting regular astronomical observations with the registration and interpretation of celestial phenomena and notifying the emperor and the people about them, compiling and updating calendars, and geodetic work. Deep originality, centuries-old traditions, and continuity characterize the development of Chinese astronomy. Chinese astronomers independently discovered a number of the above phenomena and outstripped other ancient civilizations with many outstanding discoveries.
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