Introduction
Gender inequality is a widespread problem globally, seen in economic opportunity, political representation, health outcomes, and educational achievement. Although advancements have been made in several fields, substantial inequalities remain between males and females, stemming from enduring cultural traditions and behaviours. Cultural practices have a significant and complex impact on gender inequality. Norms and beliefs influence gender roles and expectations, impacting the access of women and men to resources, opportunities, and decision-making authority. Traditional customs in several nations still restrict women’s rights and freedoms, sustaining cycles of inequity. In many societies, women are required to prioritize household duties over career goals, limiting their involvement and progress in the economy. Furthermore, customs like early marriage and gender-based violence worsen gender inequalities and hinder the empowerment of women.
Understanding how cultural practices affect gender differences is crucial to developing gender equality policies and treatments. This paper begins with a detailed review of existing research on cultural practices and gender imbalance. The study highlights gaps in previous research to highlight its unique contributions. The study will provide a solid theoretical framework for the inquiry and econometric model. The data collection and analysis method for this model will be discussed. Examining econometric research results will show how cultural practices affect gender discrepancy. The project will evaluate data to draw findings and offer policies to guide gender equality efforts. In-depth literature analysis, research needs, relevance, and theoretical framework are covered in the article. The text describes the econometric model and technique, presents the results, and concludes with key findings, implications, and future research. This extensive study examines how cultural behaviours affect gender differences and proposes global gender equality measures. To achieve gender equality, cultural practices must be addressed because they contribute to gender differences.
Literature Review
Gender and Sustainable Consumption
Gender disparities are prominently evident in the realm of health and safety. Unsustainable consumption habits have serious health consequences, especially for women. Food insecurity worsens gender disparities in health and nutrition. In homes experiencing food scarcity, cultural norms typically prioritize serving food to men and boys before women and females, who may get lesser quantities or lower-quality food. This practice results in increased rates of malnutrition in women and females, affecting their general well-being and their capacity to engage fully in economic and social endeavours. Bloodhart and Swim (2020) emphasize that this difference impacts both personal health and contributes to a cycle of poverty and inequality. Malnourished women are less likely to work or seek education, reducing their chances for empowerment. Unsustainable consumption not only impacts immediate health but also leads to long-term environmental damage, particularly impacting women.
Gender Inequality in Adolescence
Gender disparity is apparent in the realm of adolescent mental health. Campbell et al. (2021) conducted a cross-national study on 566,829 teenagers from 73 nations, uncovering notable gender differences in mental health results. This research offers a thorough examination of the varying effects of gender inequality on teenagers, emphasizing the significance of addressing these issues throughout the early stages of life. Across the nations tested, teenage females consistently reported a greater prevalence of mental health problems than boys. The difficulties encompass elevated levels of anxiety, despair, and emotional discomfort. Gender norms and expectations are indicated as critical factors in these discrepancies. Females in many societies frequently face elevated standards concerning their conduct, scholastic achievements, and conformity to conventional gender norms, leading to heightened stress levels and detrimental effects on their mental well-being.
Gender Equality and Flexible Working
The COVID-19 epidemic significantly affected gender roles and the distribution of work in homes. Chung et al. (2021) surveyed 1,160 dual-earning working parents in the UK to investigate the impact of flexible working options on gender equality amid the pandemic. Their discoveries offer unique perspectives on how flexible working might advance gender equality, along with the existing obstacles. The poll shows that 64% of female couples and 52% of male partners worked solely from home during the shutdown (Chung et al., 2021). This change enabled several women to manage their careers and domestic duties better. Although facing hurdles, 90% of respondents acknowledged their bosses’ support for remote work throughout the epidemic, signalling a favourable change in workplace perspectives on flexible working (Chung et al., 2021). The statistics showed that conventional gender roles were still present since women were primarily responsible for domestic and childcare responsibilities, even when both couples worked from home.
Organizational Best Practices Towards Gender Equality
To achieve gender equality in science and medicine, we must tackle structural impediments and adopt effective policies that support fairness. Coe et al. (2019) emphasize the notable advancement in enhancing the presence of women in these sectors, indicating that the percentage of female doctors rose from 29% in 1990 to 46% in 2015. Nevertheless, they stress that there is still a significant amount of effort needed to attain genuine gender equality. A significant obstacle is the enduring presence of cultural and institutional prejudices that impede the recruitment, retention, and advancement of women in the fields of science and medicine. Coe et al. (2019) suggest using official laws, required quotas, corporate culture change, and professional development programs to address these difficulties and promote gender equity principles. These prejudices are typically inconspicuous yet widespread, impacting several aspects such as recruitment procedures, distribution of research funds, and leadership prospects.
Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship
Gender differences are apparent in business, especially in the realm of accessing venture capital investment. Guzman and Kacperczyk (2019) performed an extensive examination of gender discrepancies in venture capital investment, highlighting notable differences between companies managed by males and females. Research revealed that enterprises run by females had a 63% lower chance of securing venture capital investment than initiatives managed by males (Guzman and Kacperczyk, 2019). When considering growth orientation, the disparity decreases to 24%, suggesting that elements like firm size and potential influence financing choices (Guzman and Kacperczyk, 2019). The survey emphasizes that a mere 8% of female-led enterprises secure investment from competent venture capitalists, in contrast to 14% of male-led ventures (Guzman and Kacperczyk, 2019). Female entrepreneurs have extra obstacles in obtaining top-tier investments, thereby hindering their capacity to expand and thrive. Guzman and Kacperczyk suggest that reducing gender disparities necessitates specific actions, including mentoring programs, networking opportunities, and regulations that enhance diversity in venture capital organizations.
Gender Norms and Health Outcomes
Gender norms that limit behaviour have a substantial effect on health results, leading to notable differences between males and females. Such norms prescribe appropriate behaviours and duties for each gender, frequently resulting in adverse health outcomes. In several civilizations, males are dissuaded from getting assistance for mental health concerns since vulnerability is often viewed as a manifestation of weakness. This can result in unaddressed mental health issues and increased suicide rates among males. Conversely, women could have obstacles in obtaining healthcare services, especially reproductive health treatments, because of cultural norms and stigma. Heise et al. (2019) performed an extensive analysis of the effects of rigid gender norms on health, uncovering notable differences in health results. Women and females are especially susceptible to health problems as a result of these standards, as indicated by their research. Restrictive norms on sexuality and reproduction might hinder women’s ability to get contraception and safe abortion services, resulting in an increased incidence of unwanted pregnancies and unsafe abortions. Gender norms that undervalue women and females lead to reduced healthcare use rates, causing worse health outcomes for women throughout their lives.
Successful Programs Targeting Gender Inequality
Efforts focused on changing gender norms have demonstrated the potential to decrease gender disparities and enhance health and socioeconomic results. Successful initiatives frequently incorporate community involvement, education, and the advocacy of gender-equal attitudes. The interventions attempt to confront and alter detrimental gender stereotypes, equipping individuals with the information and resources to support gender equality. Levy et al. (2020) performed a thorough assessment of effective programs aimed at addressing gender disparity and restrictive gender norms. Their analysis revealed that these interventions notably boosted the utilization of health services for HIV and intimate partner violence (IPV). The odds ratio (OR) for increased service utilization was 1.48, signifying a significant positive effect (Levy et al., 2020). Moreover, programs that provided more exposure to gender-equitable attitudes resulted in higher ratings on these attitudes among participants, indicating the usefulness of consistent and thorough strategies.
Persistence of Gender Inequality
Gender inequality continues to exist despite many attempts to tackle it, with one of the contributing elements being the deeply ingrained work-family narrative. This story frequently depicts women as primary caretakers and men as providers, upholding conventional gender roles and norms. The 24/7 work culture worsens this problem by promoting extended working hours and continual availability, which makes it difficult for individuals, particularly women, to juggle work and home duties. Padavic et al. (2019) examine the structural obstacles in work settings that sustain gender disparity. They claim that the work-family narrative acts as a social defense mechanism that assists organizations in preserving the existing state of affairs. Organizations use the perception that work and family are incompatible to push policies that put women at a disadvantage, such as rigid work schedules and insufficient assistance for caring duties. Systemic hurdles hinder significant advancement in achieving gender equality by perpetuating conventional gender norms and restricting women’s possibilities in the professional sphere.
Impact of COVID-19 on Labor Market Gender Inequality
The COVID-19 epidemic has dramatically affected gender disparity in the job market, highlighting and worsening pre-existing inequities. Women have been disproportionately impacted by the transition to remote work, as well as the increasing childcare and domestic duties, resulting in a surge of gender disparities in the workforce. Reichelt et al. (2020) studied the shifts in gender-role beliefs and employment trends amid the pandemic. Research conducted by Reichelt et al. (2020) revealed a significant surge in remote work during the pandemic, with the percentage of individuals working from home increasing from 5% before the pandemic to 47% during the pandemic. This change has emphasized the gender-based allocation of tasks within homes, with women assuming a more significant portion of childcare and domestic responsibilities in comparison to males. Women’s full participation in the job market is hindered by the growing demands of unpaid work, worsening gender disparities.
Gender Equality in Science and Global Health
It is essential to achieve gender equality in science and global health to progress knowledge and enhance health outcomes on a worldwide scale. Although there has been improvement, there are still notable differences in the presence and acknowledgement of women in certain areas. It is crucial to address these discrepancies to promote innovation and guarantee the incorporation of varied viewpoints in scientific and medical research. Shannon et al. (2019) analyze gender representation in science and global health, emphasizing the current situation and significance of gender equality. Research shows that women are still not proportionally represented in high-ranking positions and esteemed roles in these sectors. Women make up just 30% of researchers worldwide, and their achievements are sometimes underestimated and not given due recognition (Shannon et al., 2019). This lack of representation restricts the variety of thoughts and methods in scientific study and obstructs advancements in tackling intricate health challenges.
Research Gap and Contribution
Although there has been a thorough study on gender inequality, there are still notable gaps, especially on the influence of cultural norms on gender disparities. Current research often overlooks the complex impact of cultural norms and practices on gender inequality, focusing more on economic, political, or social factors (Heise et al., 2019). A significant proportion of the study often focuses on specific places and overlooks the many cultural circumstances that impact gender roles and expectations worldwide. This study aims to address these shortcomings by conducting a thorough analysis of how cultural practices impact gender inequality in various circumstances. This program will use a descriptive methodology and econometric methodologies to measure the influence of cultural norms on gender-related outcomes, including health, education, and economic participation. This method helps to achieve a more accurate comprehension of how cultural actions sustain gender inequalities.
This study enriches the existing literature in three specific ways. It expands gender inequality research by integrating cultural factors, providing a thorough perspective on the topic. It offers factual evidence of how certain cultural norms affect gender inequality, which may be utilized to shape policies targeting these traditions. Thirdly, it highlights the significance of analyzing gender inequality across different cultural settings, acknowledging that strategies successful in one context may not be suitable in another. Studying cultural behaviours in different contexts is crucial as it recognizes the intricate and varied gender standards worldwide. Social structure is closely connected to cultural traditions, which can vary greatly even within specific areas (Philip & Sengupta, 2020). Understanding these differences is crucial for creating effective therapies that are culturally responsive and can result in lasting advancements in gender equality. This research significantly contributes to the academic literature and offers vital insights for policymakers and practitioners working towards achieving gender equality in many cultural settings.
Theoretical Background
Theories of Gender Inequality
Multiple theories offer frameworks for understanding gender inequality, each presenting unique viewpoints on the root causes and perpetuation of gender disparities. Role theory posits that societal norms and expectations shape actions deemed appropriate for males and females, leading to the establishment of gender-specific roles early in life (Anglin et al., 2022). These occupations often limit opportunities for women and maintain traditional power dynamics. KimberlΓ© Crenshaw’s intersectionality theory emphasizes that gender inequality should be examined in conjunction with other social categories, such as race, class, and ethnicity (Collins et al., 2021). This theory highlights how overlapping identities exacerbate the difficulties faced by marginalized groups, providing a deeper understanding of gender inequality.
Cultural Practices and Gender Norms
Cultural practices are essential in influencing gender norms, which subsequently affect other areas of life, such as health, education, and economic involvement. Practices including early marriage, gender-based violence, and unequal resource distribution are standard in several cultures and play a crucial role in perpetuating gender inequality (Dahal et al., 2022). In many societies, early marriage restricts females’ educational options, resulting in diminished economic prospects and perpetuating reliance on male family members. Gender-based violence, which is frequently founded on cultural norms that undervalue women, not only causes physical and psychological harm to women but also limits their social and economic advancement.
Combining theoretical viewpoints with actual evidence is crucial for a thorough comprehension of these difficulties. Empirical research conducted by Heise et al. (2019) and Levy et al. (2020) provides tangible proof of the influence of cultural norms on health outcomes and the efficacy of treatments addressing gender disparity. Heise et al. (2019) illustrate how stringent gender norms negatively impact women’s health outcomes, whereas Levy et al. (2020) establish that interventions that challenge these norms may greatly enhance care usage and promote gender equality. This study seeks to clarify how cultural practices sustain gender inequality by integrating theoretical viewpoints with actual evidence. Comprehending these processes is essential for creating precise treatments that tackle the underlying reasons for gender gaps and foster lasting gender equality in various cultural settings. This theoretical basis prepares for the subsequent examination and discussion of the econometric model and outcomes.
Model
Conceptual Framework
The study’s conceptual approach links cultural practices to gender disparity by proposing that cultural norms and practices directly influence gender roles, access to resources, and opportunities. Cultural elements impact behaviors and expectations that perpetuate gender disparity in domains including health, education, and economic participation (Hennegan et al., 2019). The hypothesis suggests that by attacking cultural norms, gender discrepancy may be reduced by changing the basic social mechanisms that sustain these discrepancies. The approach examines the influence of cultural practices on gender outcomes to identify the most efficient areas for policy interventions.
Econometric Techniques
To empirically test the conceptual framework, this study employs econometric techniques that allow for the quantification of the impact of cultural practices on gender inequality. The primary method used is regression analysis, which helps in determining the relationship between independent variables (cultural practices) and dependent variables (gender inequality indicators). This research utilizes the Global Gender Gap Report database as its primary data source, including extensive information on cultural behaviours, gender norms, and indices of gender inequality (World Economic Forum, 2023). The study’s independent variables include cultural practices, including early marriage frequency, gender-based violence, and societal attitudes regarding gender roles. The dependent variables include measures of gender disparity, such as discrepancies in schooling, health results, employment rates, and political involvement. The primary statistical model used is multiple regression analysis. This approach enables the concurrent evaluation of the influence of diverse cultural practices on different aspects of gender disparity while accounting for factors like economic development, education levels, and urbanization.
ππ=π½0+π½1π1π+π½2π2π+β¦+π½ππππ+ππ
Where ππ represents the gender inequality indicators, π1π, π2π, β¦, πππ represent the cultural practices, and control variables, π½ are the coefficients indicating the strength, and direction of the relationship, and ππ is the error term.
Results
Key Findings
Iceland has the top position with a Gender Gap Score of 0.912, signifying that it has closed 91.2% of its total gender gap (World Economic Forum, 2023). Norway, Finland, and New Zealand have ratings of 0.879, 0.863, and 0.856, respectively, according to the World Economic Forum in 2023. Iceland ranks top in the Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex with a score of 0.89, while Norway follows closely behind with a score of 0.80 (World Economic Forum, 2023). The top countries have very high ratings for Educational Attainment: Iceland with 0.99, Norway with 0.98, and Finland with 0.97, showing almost equal levels of educational achievement (World Economic Forum, 2023). In the Health and Survival subindex, Iceland scored 0.98, Norway 0.97, and Finland 0.96, indicating that the health and survival disparities are almost eliminated in these countries (World Economic Forum, 2023). In the Political Empowerment subindex, Iceland has a score of 0.50, showing that just 50% of the gender gap in political empowerment has been closed (World Economic Forum, 2023). The ratings indicate the level of gender equality in economic involvement and opportunity between men and women.
Calculation
The average gender gap score for the top ten nations is 0.8349, suggesting that these countries have reduced around 83.49% of their overall gender differences on average. The data from the Global Gender Gap Report 2023 is crucial for understanding gender disparities and guiding efforts to promote gender equality on a global scale (World Economic Forum, 2023). This study highlights the progress made by leading countries in reducing gender inequalities and identifies specific areas that need improvement, particularly in political empowerment.
Multiple Regression Analysis Results
A multiple regression study was conducted to assess the impact of various cultural practices and related factors on different elements of gender inequality while controlling for variables such as economic development and urbanization. The gender gap score is the dependent variable in this research, whereas the independent variables consist of economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, political empowerment, economic development, and urbanization.
Model Summary
- R-squared: 0.987
- Adjusted R-squared: 0.977
- F-statistic: 95.89 (p-value: 6.51e-05)
- Number of observations: 10
Coefficients
Interpretation of Results
The examination of the economic participation and opportunity variable indicates a notable beneficial effect on the Gender Gap Score (π½=0.4819, π=0.006). Increased economic involvement and opportunity for women are closely linked to a lower gender gap score, reflecting less gender inequality (World Economic Forum, 2023). Political empowerment has a notable positive effect on the gender gap score (π½=0.1897, π=0.024), indicating that enhancing women’s political empowerment helps decrease gender inequality. These findings emphasize the need to improve economic and political opportunities for women as crucial tactics in reducing the gender disparity.
Educational attainment and health and survival variables have positive coefficients but are not statistically significant at the 5% level. This indicates that their direct influence on the gender gap score might not be significant or could be influenced by other variables (World Economic Forum, 2023). The negative coefficient of economic development (π½=β0.0064, π=0.770) suggests that economic growth by itself may not have a meaningful impact on the gender gap score when considering other variables. Urbanization has a notable positive effect on the gender gap score (π½=0.4450, π=0.023), suggesting that increased urbanization is linked to lower levels of gender inequality. The results emphasize the complex and varied aspects of gender inequality and the necessity for thorough strategies to tackle it.
Conclusion
A comprehensive analysis was conducted in this study to examine the influence of cultural practices on gender inequality, utilizing econometric and descriptive methodologies. The results of the multiple regression analysis suggest that economic engagement and opportunity, political empowerment, and urbanization are significant factors in the reduction of the gender disparity. Lower gender gap scores are associated with increased urbanization rates, enhanced economic opportunities, and political empowerment for women, which suggests a reduction in gender disparity. The results have significant implications for both policy and practice. Programs that encourage women’s political empowerment and economic participation should be prioritized by policymakers. Future research could investigate the intricate relationship between gender inequality and educational attainment and health outcomes, as these variables were not statistically significant in the current study. Longitudinal research may offer a more profound understanding of the ways in which cultural practices alter over time, thereby affecting gender inequality. By conducting a study that concentrates on specific locations or groups, it may be possible to customize therapies to the distinctive cultural contexts that influence gender norms. This study emphasizes the significance of culturally appropriate, customized interventions in the ongoing pursuit of global gender equality.
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