Introduction
Drug abuse is a menace to individuals and society in general. There has always been an attempt to explain why people develop an addiction to psychotropic drugs. In an attempt to do so, several scholars have come up with theories that might explain the phenomenon. These theories revolve around a human’s biological, psychological and social aspects. The biological aspect explains how chemicals in psychotropic drugs interact with the biochemical system. Psychology theories explain the significant relationship between drug abuse and mental health. Lastly, the sociological aspect explains how society might contribute to drug abuse. This essay will provide insight into these theories and some of their limitations. Drug dependence has been a major issue in society and, thus, the emergence of several theories that explain the use of substances.
Previously Used Theories
The concept of drug use and addiction has evolved. Different theories apply to different individuals. However, some of these theories are not currently applicable when explaining substance abuse because they are no longer supported by evidence. One of these theories is the moral theory. In the past, most people viewed drug abuse using a moral lens (Adger, 2021). This lens bases its explanation on the idea abusing drugs is a moral failing. Moral judgments originated during Victorian times. During this era, any weakness preventing a person from being productive in society would be viewed as a moral issue (Alvarez-Mojaras et al., 2019). The moral theory argues that people who abuse drugs make this choice due to moral degradation.
The moral theory exists until the present, but it is not used for study due to a lack of substantial evidence. The explanation of the model has its basis in assumptions and the set social and moral standards (Berkman & Wilson, 2021). Such theory cannot be used for research purposes because it does not offer an accurate explanation of the use of drugs. The theory categorizes drug addicts as hopeless people in society, and no intervention can be helpful to them (Fairbanks, 2019). Linking drug abuse with sinfulness and immorality can only be viewed as stereotyping, not educative.
The gene theory, which has a biological approach, is no longer supported by evidence. Chromosomes carry DNA genes, and a parent passes them to a child during reproduction. According to this theory, drug addiction traits can be passed from a parent to their children (Botticelli et al., 2020). In 1860, Gregor Mendel introduced the principles that govern hereditary, known as the law of independent assortment (Botticelli et al., 2020). Many people use drugs, but not everyone becomes an addict. Family studies, including siblings, adoptees, fraternal twins, and identical twins, indicating that a person’s risk of developing drug addiction partly depends on their genetic makeup. These studies do not, however, offer substantial evidence connected to a biological basis.
The genetic architecture behind drug abuse has always been unclear, making the theory unfit for research purposes. Genes influence the level of drug use, from the stage of initiation to that of addiction. Twin studies show that addiction heritability ranges from 0.73 to 0.40, which are cocaine and hallucinogens (Kaprio, 2022). However, addictions only occur due to gene results and environmental interactions. In as much as gene components play a role in drug abuse, addiction is more determined by moral challenges and environmental factors (Kaprio, 2022). This study shows that there is no adequate evidence that presents gene components as the only cause of addiction.
New Theoretical Orientations Gaining Popularity
New research has allowed for new theoretical orientations to gain popularity. One of these theories is the neuroscientific theory. This theory needs an understanding of the side effects of drugs on the human brain (Alvarez-Monjaras et al., 2019). Different drugs affect the brain in different ways. However, two main drug pathways exist the endogenous opioid system and the dopamine reward system (Chan et., 2019). This theory has gained popularity because of its broad argument and the breakdown of how drugs affect the brain. This breakdown increases the evidence tied to the theory, increasing its accuracy.
Nicotine activates the nicotinic receptor, which causes an increase in the transmission of neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters include endorphin, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, and dopamine (Hill, 2019). Alcohol poses difficulty in identifying its mechanisms of action because of its several primary action targets. Consumption of alcohol increases the release of dopamine, serotonin function, and the inhibitory transmission at gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA-A) channels (Karch, 2019). The theory shows that these two drugs trigger the release of dopamine in the brain, which activates the reward system. These drugs also activate the brain’s endogenous opioid system, which causes pain relief and euphoria (Umar & Birai, 2022). Therefore, people develop a dependence on them, and this leads to addiction.
The second type of theory that has gained popularity is psychological theory. These approaches have a basis on concepts similar to those of other behavioural syndromes, such as gambling. This explanation emphasizes on inability to control drug use despite the person experiencing problems (Hill, 2019). These psychological theories include cognitive, behavioral, and rational choice theories. The cognitive theory explains the relationship between addiction and self-regulation: making a plan designed to change a person’s behaviour (Kabiri et al., 2022). Self-regulation entails acting correctly, aiming at achieving one’s goals, and planning a life in general. For some people, it is not easy to maintain a psychological and physical balance (Karch, 2019). Therefore, they rely on substance use to perform their daily activities and achieve their goals. This excessive dependence on substance abuse, in turn, results in addiction.
Behavioural theory has gained popularity because there is a close connection between a person’s behavior and drug addiction. The self-administration of drugs is an example of instrumental behavior because a person’s actions are instrumental in the obtainment of consequences (Umar & Birai, 2022). Studies that used animal subjects indicated that drug-naïve animals would consume drugs in excess levels (Karch, 2019). Continued use of drugs by the animals also depended on present environmental factors and the usage history. Classical conditioning also explains behavioural theory. A person dependent on a particular drug will experience intense cravings if they abstain for a long time (Chan et al., 2019). Cue exposure is connected to classical conditioning in that after a person develops an intense craving and is exposed to a particular clue, they end up consuming the drug (Fairbanks, 2019). Exteroceptive cues include seeing a needle or smelling alcohol. Interoceptive cues constitute of uplifting mood and the drug action on the brain.
The rational choice theory explains why people continue engaging in drug abuse, despite it being a self-destructive behaviour. This theory explains that drug addicts have impaired control over drug abuse. This lack of control makes them continue using the drugs, even after wishing to stop or reduce their usage (Kabiri et al., 2022). This theory argues that a person addicted to substance use has two choices, and they are both evaluated based on their future consequences. One is to decide to stop drug use, and the other one is to continue with its usage. The latter option is superior, but many individuals always choose the first option even though they know they should not.
Social learning theory has always existed, but it has also gained popularity amid new research. This theory argues that adolescents and young adults will indulge in drug abuse if their peers and adults who serve as role models are also addicts (Kabiri et al., 2022). Individual observes their peer or role model and imitates their behaviours. After new research, this theory has still maintained its popularity because societal behaviours keep changing (Karch, 2019). As a result, uncommon behaviours have now become a norm, impacting the social learning theory. For example, drinking alcohol and using drugs such as cannabis were not common in the past. Nowadays, the two drugs are consumed in broad daylight, and children grow up seeing their parents or close relatives using them for pressure (Umar & Birai, 2022). The children then grow up and begin using drugs after reaching their teenage years, and most end up being addicts.
Limitations for the New Approaches
One limitation of the new theoretical orientations is that some drugs, such as alcohol, have several primary action targets. This challenge poses a difficulty to the neuroscientific theory, as it tries to explain the impact of drugs on the brain (Alvarez-Monjaras et al., 2019). Another limitation of this theory is that some people combine drugs. That is, a person might simultaneously be addicted to two or more different types of drugs. This theory does not explain the drug effects on the brain in such a circumstance. A combination of two drugs might have different actions on the brain from those of individual drugs.
The psychological theory poses a limitation under the rational choice section. In that, it is difficult to know whether an individual was aware that taking the drink was not the superior choice at the time. A person might have made the choice and regretted it later on, but the difficulty comes in ascertaining whether he or she regretted it when drinking. This paradox poses a limitation, and there have been several attempts to explain it without success. Some theorists have tried explaining this by stating that some drug-dependent people can make rational decisions (Berkman & Wilson, 2021). Therefore, the theory aims to show how rational people can knowingly be trapped in a consumption pattern.
Lastly, the limitation posed by the social learning theory is that it only focuses on drug-dependent people who have close family or friends going through the same problem. A substantial number of people refrain from using drugs after observing how they negatively affect their close family members or close friend. However, there is a large percentage of people who are not addicts, despite being raised by parents who are drug-dependent (Umar & Birai, 2022).
Conclusion
The issue of drug dependence has been a pressing one in society. For this reason, several scholars have attempted to explain drug use, and this has birthed many theories. Some theories were applicable in the past, but they are not used presently due to their lack of evidence. The moral theory views drug abuse as a lack of moral values, and it is no longer used because it does not offer a valid explanation. New theoretical orientations, such as the neuroscientific approach, have gained popularity because they offer an in-depth analysis of why people consume drugs. These new approaches are faced with a few limitations, but their effectiveness outweighs them.
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